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pain disorder as related to stress
Definition
Pain disorder is one of several somatoform disorders described in
the revised, fourth edition of the mental health professional's handbook, the Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (known as DSM-IV-TR).
The term "somatoform" means that symptoms are physical but are not
entirely understood as a consequence of a general medical condition or as a
direct effects of a substance, such as a drug. Pain in one or more anatomical
sites is the predominant complaint and is severe enough to require medical or
therapeutic intervention . Pain disorder is classified as a mental
disorder because psychological factors play an important role in the onset,
severity, worsening, or maintenance of pain.
. Sometimes pain disorder is referred to as somatization, but this
is an imprecise term and is easily confused with somatization disorder .
Description
When a patient's primary complaint is the experience of pain and
when impairment at home, work, or school causes significant distress, a diagnosis
of pain disorder may be warranted. The diagnosis is further differentiated
by subtype; subtype is assigned depending on whether or not pain primarily is
accounted for by psychological factors or in combination with a general medical
condition, and whether the pain is acute (less than six months) or chronic (six
months or more). The classification of pain states is important since the
effectiveness of treatment depends on the aptness of the diagnosis of pain
disorder and its type.
Causes and symptoms
Causes
Common sites of pain include the back (especially lower back), the
head, abdomen, and chest. Causes of pain vary depending on the site; however,
in pain disorder, the severity or duration of pain or the degree of associated
disability is unexplained by observed medical or psychological problems.
The prevailing biopsychosocial model of mental disorders suggests
that multiple causes of varying kinds may explain pain disorder, especially
when the pain is chronic. There are four domains of interest:
The underlying organic problem or medical condition, if there is
one. For example, fibromyalgia (a pain syndrome involving fibromuscular
tissue), skeletal damage, pathology of an internal organ, migraine headache,
and peptic ulcer all have characteristic patterns of pain and a particular set
of causes.
The experience of pain. The severity, duration, and pattern of
pain are important determinants of distress. Uncontrolled or inadequately
managed pain is a significant stressor.
Functional impairment and disability. Pain is exacerbated by loss
of meaningful activities or social relationships. Disruption or loss may lead
to isolation and resentment or anger, which further increases pain.
Emotional distress. Depression and anxiety are the most common
correlates of pain, especially when the person suffering feels that the pain is
unmanageable, or that the future only holds more severe pain and more losses.
Symptoms
Symptoms vary depending on the site of pain and are treated
medically. However, there are common symptoms associated with pain disorder
regardless of the site:
·
negative or distorted cognition, such as feeling helpless or
hopeless with respect to pain and its management
·
inactivity, passivity, and/or disability
·
increased pain requiring clinical intervention
·
insomnia and fatigue
·
disrupted social relationships at home, work, or school
·
depression and/or anxiety
Treatments
Depending on whether the pain is acute or chronic, management may
involve one or more of the following: pharmacological treatment (medication); psychotherapy
(individual or group); family, behavioral, physical, hypnosis, and/or
occupational therapy. If the pain is acute, the primary goal is to relieve the
pain. Customary agents are acetaminophen or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs (NSAIDs); if opioid analgesics are prescribed, they often are combined
with NSAIDs so that the dosage of opioids may be reduced. Psychotherapy is less
important for the treatment of acute pain as compared to chronic pain disorder.
In comparison, treatment of chronic pain disorder usually requires some sort of
psychotherapy in combination with medication.
Antidepressants
Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) reduce pain, improve sleep, and
strengthen the effects of opioids (such as codeine and oxycodone), as well as
moderate depression. Relief of pain may occur in a few days while lessening of
depression may take several weeks. Usually, TCAs for pain are prescribed at
doses 33% to 50% lower than when prescribed for depression. TCAs are
particularly effective for neuropathic pain, headache, facial pain,
fibromyalgia, and arthritis.
Treatment of sleep dysfunction
Pain and depression diminish the restorative quality of sleep.
When the cycle of pain, depression, insomnia, and fatigue is established, it
tends to be self-perpetuating. Treatment may include antidepressants,
relaxation training, and education regarding good sleep hygiene.
Cognitive-behavioral therapy
Many people who suffer chronic pain experience isolation,
distress, frustration, and a loss of confidence regarding their ability to
cope; subsequently, they may adopt a passive, helpless style of problem solving.
The goal of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is to restore a sense of
self-efficacy by educating patients about the pain-and-tension cycle, by
teaching them how to actively manage pain and distress, and by informing them
about the therapeutic effects of their medications. CBT is time-limited,
structured, and goal-oriented.
Some tension-reducing techniques include progressive muscle
relaxation, visual imagery, hypnosis, and biofeedback . Pain diaries are
useful for describing daily patterns of pain and for helping the patient
identify activities, emotions, and thoughts that alleviate or worsen pain.
Diaries also are useful in evaluating the effectiveness of medication. Patients
may be taught pacing techniques or scheduling strategies to restore and
maintain meaningful activities.
The cognitive aspect of CBT is based on cognitive-social learning
theory. The focus is on helping the patient to restructure his or her ideas
about the nature of pain and the possibility of effective self-management. In
particular, the patient is taught to identify and then modify negative or
distorted thought patterns of helplessness and hopelessness.
Operant conditioning
The principles of operant conditioning are taught to the patient
and family members so that activity and non-pain behaviors are reinforced or
encouraged. The goal is to eliminate pain behaviors, such as passivity,
inactivity, and over-reliance on medication.
Other Treatments
Other treatments effective in the management of pain include acupuncture
, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), trigger point
injections, massage, nerve blocks, surgical ablation (removal of a part or
pathway), meditation , exercise, yoga , music and art therapy.
Prognosis
The prognosis for total remission of symptoms is good for acute
pain disorder and not as promising for chronic pain disorder. The typical
pattern for chronic pain entails occasional flare-ups alternating with periods
of low to moderate pain. The prognosis for remission of symptoms is better when
patients are able to continue working; conversely, unemployment and the
attendant isolation, resentment, and inactivity are correlates of a continuing
pain disorder. Additionally, if reinforcement of pain behavior is in
place (for example, financial compensation for continuing disability, an overly
solicitous spouse, abuse of addictive drugs), remission is less likely.
The results of outcome studies comparing pain disorder treatments
point to cognitive-behavioral therapy in conjunction with antidepressants as
the most continually effective regimen. However, people in chronic pain may
respond better to other treatments and it is in keeping with the goal of active
self-management for the patient and health professional(s) to find an
individualized mix of effective coping strategies.
Family
morbidity in chronic pain patients could indicate genetic vulnerability to
depressive spectrum disorders or presence of pain behaviour models. Assessment
of family morbidity is an area of chronic pain research which has been
neglected. In the present study, the frequency and nature of the family
psychiatric morbidity of 203 consecutive chronic pain patients has been
assessed and compared with that of 140 non-pain psychiatric patients. 30% of
chronic pain patients and 33.6% of non-pain psychiatric patients had family
psychiatric morbidity. The commonest illness in families of pain patients were
found to be alcoholism, psychosomatic disorders and chronic pain. Schizophrenia
and affective disorders were reported significantly more often in families of
non-pain patients. 53% of psychogenic pain disorder patients had a positive
family morbidity. Alcoholism among male relatives, and chronic pain and
hypertension more often among female relatives, was another significant
observation. No significant difference was found between chronic pain patients
with and without family morbidity with regard to socio-demographic variables
and clinical diagnosis.