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The
eating disorders are characterized by severe disturbances in eating behavior.
The 2 specific diagnoses of this disorder are “Anorexia Nervosa” and “Bulimia
Nervosa.” Anorexia is characterized by a refusal to maintain a minimally normal
body weight. Bulimia Nervosa is characterized by repeated episodes of
binge(episodes of uncontrollable overeating) eating followed by inappropriate
compensatory behaviors such as self-induced vomiting; misuse of laxatives;
fasting; or excessive exercise.
A
disturbance in perception of body shape and weight is an essential feature of
both Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa.
Eating
disorders appeared in the DSM for the first time in 1980 as a subcategory of
disorders beginning in childhood or adolescence. With the publication of DSM-IV
the eating disorders became a distinct category reflecting the increased
attention they have received from clinicians and researchers over the past 3
decades
Anorexia Nervosa
a)
Diagnostic features - The term “anorexia” refers to loss of appetite,
and “nervosa” indicates for emotional reasons. The term is a misnomer because
most patients with anorexia nervosa do not lose their appetite or interest in
food. In fact, while starving themselves, they’re often preoccupied with thoughts
of food and may even go to the extent of cooking gourmet meals for their
families.
There are 4 features of anorexia nervosa that are
required for diagnosis:
-
The person must refuse to maintain a normal body
weight. This is usually taken to mean that the person weighs less than 85% of
what is considered normal for that person’s age and height. Weight loss is
typically achieved through dieting, although purging (self-induced vomiting,
heavy use of laxatives or diuretics) and excessive exercise can also be a part
of the picture.
-
The person has an intense fear of gaining weight,
and the fear is not reduced by weight loss. They can never be thin enough
-
Patients with anorexia nervosa have a distorted
sense of their body shape. Even when emaciated they maintain that they are
overweight or that certain parts of their bodies, particularly their abdomen,
buttocks, and thighs, are too fat. To check their body size, they typically
weight themselves frequently, measure the size of different parts of the body,
and gaze critically at their reflections in mirrors. Their self-esteem is
closely linked to maintaining thinness.
-
In females, the extreme emaciation causes
amenorrhea, the loss of the menstrual period. Of the four diagnostic criteria,
amenorrhea seems least important; few differences have been found between women
who meet all four criteria and those who meet the other three but not
amenorrhea (Garfinkel et al., 1996)
b)
Associated features- DSM-IV distinguishes two types of anorexia
nervosa. In the restricting type, weight loss is achieved by severely limiting
food intake; in the binge-eating-purging type, the person has to regularly
engage in binge eating and purging. Numerous differences between these two
subtypes support the validity of this distinction. The binge-purging subtype
appears to be a more psychopathological; patients exhibit more personality
disorders, impulsive behavior, stealing, alcohol and drug abuse, social
withdrawal, and suicide attempts than do patients with the restricting type of
anorexia. (Pryor, Wiederman, & McGilley, 1996)
c) Course
and Prevalence - Anorexia typically begins in the early to middle
teenage years, often after an episode of dieting and the occurrence of a life
stress. It is about ten times more frequent in women than in men, with a
lifetime prevalence of a little less than 1 percent (Hsu, 1990; Walters &
kindler, 1994). When anorexia nervosa does occur in men, symptomatology and
other characteristics, such as reports of family conflicts, are generally
similar to those reported by women with the disorder (Olivardia et al., 1995).
d) Associated
disorders (co morbidities)- Patients with anorexia nervosa are frequently
diagnosed with depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, phobias, panic
disorder, alcoholism and various personality disorders (Kennedy &
Garfinkel, 1992; Walters & Kendler, 1994).
Women with anorexia nervosa are also likely to have
sexual disturbances.
e)
Anorexia and Depression – The strong correlation between anorexia nervosa
and depression has prompted some researchers to consider the possibility that
anorexia nervosa cause depression (e.g., through the biochemical changes
produced by starvation or the feelings of guilt and shame that accompany it).
Anorexia Nervosa does not always precede depression, however. (Pope &
Hudson, 1988).
The two disorders could also share a common
diathesis or common environmental causes, such as a disturbed family
environment or other life stress. Supporting the possibility of a genetic
diathesis, studies have shown that the relatives of patients with anorexia are
at high risk for depression (e.g., Hudson et al., 1987). On the psychological
side, research has also found that women with anorexia who are depressed have a
depressive attributional style. When they experience a stressful life event,
they tend to explain the event in ways that create negative emotional states
(Metalsky et al., 1997)
It has also been proposed that depression causes
anorexia nervosa or that anorexia is a variant of depression, as symptoms of
depression and anorexia are similar. Weight loss, for example, is a symptom of
depression. There are biological similarities as well. For example, both people
who are depressed and people with anorexia have low levels of the
neurotransmitter serotonin.
All three hypotheses remain plausible explanations
of the high co morbidity between anorexia and depression.
f)
Physical Changes in Anorexia Nervosa – Self starvation and use of
laxatives produce numerous undesirable biological consequences in patients with
anorexia nervosa. Blood pressure often falls, heart rate slows, kidney and
gastrointestinal problems develop, bone mass declines, the skin dries out, nail
become brittle, hormone levels change, and mild anemia may occur. Some patients
lose hair from the scalp, and they may develop laguna, a fine, soft hair, on
their bodies. Levels of electrolytes, such as potassium and sodium, are
altered. These ionized salts, present in various bodily fluids, are essential
for the process of neural transmission, and lowered levels can lead to
tiredness, weakness, cardiac arrthymias, and even sudden death. Brain size
declines in patients with anorexia, and EEG abnormalities and neurological
impairments are frequent (Garner, 1997; Lambe et al., 1997).
g) Prognosis – About 70% of patients with
anorexia eventually recover. However, recovery often takes six or seven years,
and relapses are common before a stable pattern of eating and maintenance of
weight is achieved (Strober, Freeman & Morrel, 1997).
Anorexia is a life-threatening illness; death rates
are ten times higher among patients with the disorder among the general
population and twice as high as among patients with other psychological
disorders. Death most often results from physical complications of the illness
– for example, congestive heart failure – and from suicide (Crisp et al., 1992;
Sullivan, 1995)
Bulimia
Nervosa
a) Diagnostic criteria – “Bulimia” stems from the
Greek word meaning “ox hunger.” This disorder involves episodes of rapid
consumption of a large amount of food, followed by compensatory behaviors, such
as vomiting, fasting, or excessive exercise, to prevent weight gain. The DSM
defines a binge as eating an excessive amount of food within less than two
hours. Bulimia Nervosa is not diagnosed if the binging and purging occur only
in the context of anorexia nervosa and its extreme weight loss; the diagnosis
in such a case is anorexia nervosa: binge eating purging type.
Binges typically occur in secret, may be triggered
by stress and the negative emotions it arouses, and continue until the person
is uncomfortably full (Grilo, Shiffman & Carter-Campbell, 1994). During a
binge the person feels that he or she cannot control the amount of food that is
being consumed. Foods that can be rapidly consumed, especially sweets such as
ice cream or cake, are usually a part of a binge.
Although research suggests that patients with
bulimia nervosa sometimes ingest an enormous quantity of food during a binge,
often more than what a normal person eats in an entire day, binges are not
always as large as the DSM implies and there is a wide variation in the caloric
content consumed by individuals with Bulimia Nervosa during binges (e.g.,
Rossiter & Agras).
Patients are usually ashamed of their binge and try
to conceal them. They report that they lose control during a binge, even to the
point of experiencing something akin to a dissociative state, perhaps losing
awareness of what they are doing or feeling that it is not really they who are
binging.
After the binge is over, disgust, feelings of discomfort
and fear of weight gain lead to purging to undo the caloric effects of the
binge. Patients most often stick fingers down their throats to cause gagging,
but after a time many can induce vomiting at will without gagging themselves.
Laxative and diuretic abuse (which do little to reduce body weight) as well as
fasting and excessive exercise also are used to prevent weight gain.
Although many people binge occasionally and some
people also experiment with purging occur at least twice a week for three months.
Few differences are found between patients who binge twice a week and those who
do so less frequently, suggesting that it is more about the continuum of
severity rather than a sharp distinction (Garfinkel et al., 1995). Like
patients with anorexia nervosa, patients with bulimia nervosa are afraid of
gaining weight and their self esteem depends heavily on maintaining normal
weight. People without eating disorders typically underreport their weight and
say they are taller than they actually are; patients with bulimia nervosa are
more accurate in their reports (Doll & Fairburn, 1998)
b)
Associated Features - As with anorexia, two subtypes of bulimia nervosa
are distinguished; purging type and non purging type, in which the compensatory
behaviors are fasting or excessive exercise. In some studies, people diagnosed
with non purging bulimia were heavier, binged less frequently, and showed less
psychopathology than did people with purging type bulimia. (e.g., Mitchell,
1992).
c) Course
and Prevalence – Bulimia Nervosa typically begins in late
adolescence or early adulthood. About 90% of cases are women and prevalence
among women is thought to be 1-2% of the population (e.g., Tobias, Griffing,
& Griffing, 1997). Many patients with bulimia were somewhat overweight
before the onset of the disorder and the binge eating started during an episode
of dieting.
d)
Associated Disorders (Co morbidities) – Bulimia Nervosa is associated with numerous other
diagnoses most notably depression, personality disorders (especially borderline
personality disorder), anxiety disorder, substance abuse, and conduct disorder
(Ames-Frankel et al., 1992; Carroll, Touyz, & Beumont, 1996; Kennedy &
Garfinkel, 1992; Lilenfeld et al., 1997). Suicide rates are much higher among
people with bulimia nervosa than in the general population (Favaro &
Santonastaso, 1998). A twin study has found that bulimia and depression are
genetically related (Walters et al., 1992). Bulimia can also be associated with
stealing. Patients with bulimia who steal tend also to be illicit drug users
and to be promiscuous (Rowston & Lacey, 1992). This combination of
behaviors may reflect impulsivity or lack of self control, characteristics that
may be relevant to the behavior of binge eating.
e)
Physical changes in Bulimia Nervosa – Frequent purging can cause potassium depletion.
Heavy use of laxatives induces diarrhea, which can also lead to changes in
electrolytes and cause irregularities in the heart beat. Recurrent vomiting may
lead to tearing of tissue in the stomach and throat and to the loss of dental
enamel as stomach acids eat away at the teeth, which become ragged. The
salivary glands may become swollen. Mortality rates appear to be much less in
bulimia nervosa than in anorexia nervosa (Keel and Mitchell, 1997)
f) Prognosis - Long
term follow ups of patients with bulimia nervosa reveal that about 70% recover,
although about 10% remain fully symptomatic (Keel et al., 1999)
Binge
Eating Disorder
a)
Diagnostic Features- DSM-IV includes binge eating as a diagnosis in need
of further study rather than as a formal diagnosis. This disorder includes
recurrent binges (two times per week for six months), lack of control during
the binging episode, and distress about binging, as well as other
characteristics, such as rapid eating and eating alone. It is distinguished
from anorexia nervosa by the absence of weight loss and from bulimia by the
absence of compensatory behaviors (purging, fasting, or excessive exercise).
b)
Prevalence – Binge eating disorder appears to be more prevalent
than either anorexia or bulimia. In a community sample, it was found in 6% of
successful dieters (those who had kept their weight off for more than one year)
and in 19% of unsuccessful dieters (Ferguson & Spitzer, 1995). One
advantage of including this disorder as a diagnosis is that it would apply to
many patients who are now given the vague diagnosis of “Eating disorder not
otherwise specified” because they do not meet criteria for anorexia or bulimia
(Spitzer et al.,1995)
It occurs more frequently in women than in men and
is associated with obesity and a history of dieting (Kinzl et al., 1999)
c)
Associated Features – It is linked to impaired work and social
functioning, depression, low self esteem, substance abuse and dissatisfaction
with body shape (Spitzer et al.,1993; Striegel-Moore et al., 1998)
d) Risk
factors of developing Binge Eating Disorder- Childhood obesity, critical
comments regarding being overweight, low self concept, depression, and
childhood physical or sexual abuse (Fairburn et al., 1998)
Nevertheless, some researchers do not view binge
eating disorder as a discrete diagnostic category but rather as a less severe
version of bulimia nervosa. The reason is that few differences are found
between patients with binge eating disorder and the non purging form of bulimia
nervosa (Hay & Fairburn, 1998; Santonastaso, Ferrara, & Favaro, 1999).
Etiology of Eating Disorders
A single factor is unlikely to cause an eating
disorder. Several areas of current research- genetics, the role of the brain,
sociocultural pressures to be thin, the role of the family, and the role of
environmental stress – suggest that eating disorders result when several
influences converge in a person’s life.
Biological Factors
a)
Genetics – Both anorexia and bulimia nervosa run in families. First degree
relatives of young women with anorexia nervosa are about four times more likely
than average to have the disorder themselves (e.g., Strober et al., 1990).
Similar results have been found for bulimia nervosa (e.g., Kassett et al.,
1987). Furthermore, relatives of patients with eating disorders are more likely
than average to have symptoms of eating disorders that do not meet the complete
criteria for a diagnosis (Lilenfeld et al., 1998). Twin studies of eating
disorders also suggest a genetic influence. Most studies of both anorexia and
bulimia report higher MZ than DZ concordance rates (Fichter & Naegel,
1990).
Research has also shown that key features of the
eating disorders, such as dissatisfaction with one’s body and a strong desire
to be thin, appear to be heritable (Rutherford et al., 1993)
b) Eating
Disorders and the Brain – The hypothalamus is a key brain centre in
regulating hunger and eating. Research on animals with lesions to the lateral
hypothalamus indicate that they lose weight and have no appetite (Hoebel &
Teitelbaum, 1996); thus it is not surprising that the hypothalamus has been
proposed to play a role in anorexia. The levels of some hormones regulated by
the hypothalamus, such as cortisol, are indeed abnormal in patients with
anorexia; rather than causing the disorder, however, these hormonal
abnormalities occur as a result of self starvation and levels return to normal
following weight gain (Doerr et al., 1980) The hypothalamus does not account
for body image disturbance or fear of becoming fat. A dysfunctional
hypothalamus thus does not seem highly likely as a factor in anorexia nervosa.
Endogenous opioids are substances produced by the
body that reduce pain sensations, enhance mood, and suppress appetite, at least
among those with low body weight. Opioids are released during starvation and
have been viewed as playing a role in both anorexia and bulimia. Starvation
among patients with anorexia may increase the levels of endogenous opioids,
resulting in a positively reinforcing euphoric state (Marrazzi & Luby,
1986). Furthermore, the excessive exercise seen among some patients with eating
disorders would increase opioids and thus be reinforcing (Davis, 1996; Epling
& Pierce, 1992). Hardy and Waller (1988) hypothesized that bulimia is
mediated by low levels of endogenous opioids, which are thought to promote
craving; a euphoric state is then produced by the ingestion of food, thus
reinforcing binging.
Some research has focused on several
neurotransmitters related to eating and satiety (feeling full). Animal research
has shown that serotonin promotes satiety; therefore, it could be that the
binges of patients with bulimia result from a serotonin deficit that causes
them not to feel satiated as they eat.
Sociocultural
Pressures
In American culture, there has been a steady
progression to thinness. Starting from Beauty Pageant contestants to Fashion
Models, the fad of being thin started from the 1970’s and since then has
progressed to quite a degree. Size Zero is considered the ideal size, nowadays.
The percentage of obese people is has become double
in the past 10 years, which has resulted in extreme behavior especially from
teenage girls, who view themselves as a product of what they look like.
Gender
Influences
Women are typically more valued for their appearance
whereas men are valued more for their wealth and social status. It is due to
this reason that most women feel that it is of utmost importance that they be
looking their best at all times. Society makes the rules about what defines
good looks and based on this, women try to alter their appearance.
Women are more likely to diet which makes them more
susceptible to eating disorders.
The risk for eating disorders among groups of women
who might be expected to be concerned with their weight appear to be especially
high. (Garner et al.,1980)
Racial
Differences
The concept of being thin varies not only among
cultures but among races as well. For example, white women in
This is also true in third world countries, where
there is less pressure to be thin. It is considered more attractive to be
“healthy” as it shows that the person is well fed.
White teenage girls diet more frequently than do
African American teenage girls and are more likely to be more likely to be
dissatisfied with their bodies (Story et al.,1995)
Cross
Cultural Studies
Eating Disorders appear to be far more common in
industrialized societies, such as
In one study of 369 adolescent girls in
Psychodynamic
View
a) Disturbed Parent-Child Relationship: According to
the psychodynamic view, eating disorders are caused by disturbed parent-child
relationship. This is possibly the core cause for eating disorders. A child has
an unsatisfied relationship with parent/s, this causes him/her to feel that
he/she is not good enough. Child feels unfulfilled and unwanted.
According to Goodsitt (1997) bulimia in females
stems from a failure to develop an adequate sense of self because of a conflict
ridden mother-daughter relationship.
According to Hilde Bruch (1980) anorexia is an
attempt by children who have been raised
to feel ineffectual to gain competence and respect and to ward off feelings of
helplessness.
b) Personality Traits – Core personality traits such
as low self esteem and perfectionism are found in individuals with eating
disorders
Treatment of Eating
Disorders
Research on the treatment of eating disorders is
exploring how different treatments can be helpful for different types of eating
disorders. The American Psychiatric Association has published a set of practice
guidelines for the treatment of patients with eating disorders (American
Psychiatric Association, Practice Guidelines for Eating Disorders, American
Journal of Psychiatry, 2000).
Anorexia
a) Hospitalization: In cases where a patient is
severely ill and has a relapse from baseline weight, or is below 15 percent of
appropriate body weight; OR the patient has other medical problems, inpatient
hospitalization may be necessary. Patients are encouraged to eat regular meals
with liquid supplements, but those who refuse feedings are given feedings
through a nasogastric tube (plastic tube passed through nose, down esophagus,
into stomach). Group and individual therapy supplement dietary and medical
therapies. At one time inpatient treatment lasted many weeks, if not months,
but in todayÆs climate the goals of hospitalization are weight gain and medical
stabilization. The patient is moved to outpatient therapy when it is considered
safe to do so.
b) Psychotherapy:
Cognitive -Behavioral Therapy includes standard
elements of behavioral treatment with a focus on identifying and altering
dysfunctional thought patterns, attitudes and beliefs, which may trigger and
perpetuate binge behavior or restrictive eating. Monitoring intake of food is
an important component, along with identifying triggers and developing
alternative reactions to them
Interpersonal Psychotherapy: IPT focuses on
relationship difficulties, self-esteem, assertiveness, social skills and coping
strategies.
Family Therapy: There is no one unified form of
family therapy. The goal of the family therapist is to help members of the
family change behaviors that may have contributed to the development of some of
the anorexicÆs pathologic thoughts and activities. Blame is not placed on one
individual.
Group Psychotherapy: When anorexics are recovering,
group therapy can be very helpful. The group format allows people the
opportunity for a sharing of information, survival skills, feedback about one
with others, and it is a chance to enhance a personÆs self esteem by helping
others. A trained leader or two directs the group.
c) Medications: Unlike depression or panic disorder
there are no specific medications that are used to treat anorexia nervosa.
First and foremost, the doctor will prescribe medication that will treat any
medical problems, like electrolyte abnormalities or abnormal heart rhythms.
Antidepressants: Many patients also have depression,
and their symptoms may respond to antidepressants . There is no data, however,
that shows that antidepressants are effective in the acute treatment of
Anorexia Nervosa, and actually since people with Anorexia Nervosa may be more
at risk of suffering from side effects. Research has shown that people respond
to medication much better after they are restored to a more normal weight. The
antidepressants like Fluoxetine ( Prozac ), Sertraline (Zoloft ), Paroxetine
(Paxil) - which are approved for depression and obsessive compulsive disorder
may help the anorexic have fewer depressed feelings, as well as be less
obsessed with food and their weight.
Tranquilizers: Short-term use of medicines called
benzodiazepines may help anorexics deal with some of their anxiety. These
medicines are highly addictive, so they should not be used in individuals who
have had problems with drugs or alcohol.
Bulimia
a) Psychotherapy:: Psychotherapy can be very helpful
in addressing disordered eating, but also overall emotional health and
happiness.
Cognitive-behavioral therapy includes standard
elements of behavioral treatment with a focus on identifying and altering
dysfunctional thought patterns, attitudes and beliefs that may trigger and
perpetuate binge behavior or restrictive eating.
Interpersonal psychotherapy focuses on relationship
difficulties, self-esteem, assertiveness, social skills and coping strategies.
Family therapy
When a person with bulimia is recovering, group
therapy can be very helpful. The group format allows people the opportunity for
sharing information, survival skills and feedback about how one interacts with
others. It is also a chance to enhance a person’s self-esteem by helping
others. A trained leader directs the group.
b) Medications: Many people with bulimia also have
depression and their symptoms may respond to antidepressants. As of now, only
Fluoxetine Prozac is approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the
treatment of bulimia nervosa. This medication has been found to decrease the
number of binges as well the desire to vomit in people with moderate to severe
bulimia nervosa.
Medications such as Fluoxetine (Prozac), Sertraline
(Zoloft), Paroxetine (Paxil), which are approved for depression and obsessive
compulsive disorder may help the person with bulimia have less depressed
feelings, as well as be less obsessed with food and their weight. At
appropriate doses (similar to those used for OCD treatment), antidepressants,
which act on the serotonin system in the brain (e.g., Prozac), have been found
to decrease the strength of urges to binge for some individuals. Individuals
with a positive response to these medications have reported a lessening of
their carbohydrate cravings, which prevents bingeing. Others have experienced a
less dramatic relief/pleasure associated with binge/purge behaviors. This
response makes the binge/purge cycle less enticing as a means of stress
release.
conversion disorder
How would you consider
a conversion disorder related to stress and how would you treat such disorder?
In conversion disorder, physical symptoms
resemble those of a neurologic disorder develop. The symptoms are triggered by
mental factors such as conflicts or other stresses.
Conversion
disorder once referred to as hysteria, is thought to be caused by mental
factors such as stress and conflict, which people with this disorder experience
as convert into physical symptoms. The critical psychological conflict or
stress may not be apparent initially, but it becomes evident in the course of
obtaining a patient’s history, ideally it is a psychological factor related
symbolically and temporally to symptom onset. Conversion symptoms are presumed
to resume from an unconscious process. Although conversion disorder tends to
develop during late childhood to early adulthood, it may appear at any age. The
disorder appears to be more common among women.
Conversion
disorder is classified as one of the somatoform disorder in the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders of the American Psychiatric Association
DSM-IV TR. Conversion symptoms are not considered to be under voluntary control
and should not be explained by any physical disorder after appropriate medical
evaluation.
Facts:
Clinical
description of conversion disorder date to almost 4000 years ago,the Egyptians
attributed symptoms to a wandering uterus.In the 19th century,Paul
Briquet described the disorder as a dysfunction of the CNS ( central nervous
system).Freud first used the term conversion to refer to the development of a
somatic symptom to help bind anxiety around a repressed conflict.
Symptoms:
Symptoms
begin after some distressing social or psychological event.Other symptoms may
include paralysis of an arm or leg or loss of sensation in a part of the body__
suggest nervous system dysfunction__ loss one of the special senses such as
vision or hearing.
Treatment:
A
supportive,trustful doctor-patient relationship is essential.The most helpful
may involve collaboration with a psychiatrist or a psychologist.As the doctor
evaluates a possible physical disorder and reassures the person that the
symptoms do not indicate a serious underlying disease.
The
following treatment may help:
Hypnosis
may help by enabling people to control how stress and other mental states
affect their bodily functions.
Psychotherapy,including
cognitive-behavioural therapy,is effective for some people.
NLT
( no lift therapy).In this therapy person is completely screened out,it is a
more sort of time out concept.A person is given no attention and is completely
left alone and is only given food.
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